Research and Results
A growing number of published outcome studies including ten randomized controlled trials have been conducted on the effects of the Parents as Teachers model. Parents as Teachers works with a network of researchers to ensure independent research and evaluations are conducted that have integrity, credibility and minimize bias.
Evaluations have been supported by various states, school districts, private foundations, universities, and research organizations. With each new evaluation, we continue to learn about the children and families served by Parents as Teachers and the long-term impacts on communities.
Research results from nearly 40 years of Parents as Teachers’ studies show:
Increase in parent knowledge of early childhood development and improve positive parenting practices
Parents are more likely to feel confident in their parenting, be sensitive toward their children, engage in early literacy activities, create a safe and enriching home environment, and actively participate in their children’s education.
Wagner, M., Spiker, D. & Linn, M.I. (2002). The effectiveness of the Parents as Teachers program with low-income parents and children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(2), 67-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214020220020101
Pfannenstiel, J., Lambson, T., & Yarnell, V. (1996). The Parents as Teachers program: Longitudinal follow-up to the second wave study. Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates.
Pfannenstiel, J. (2015). Evaluation of the I3 validation of improving education outcomes for American Indian children. Kansas City, KS: Research and Training Associates, Inc.
Albritton, S., Klotz, J., & Roberson, T. (2004). The effects of participating in a Parents as Teachers program on parental involvement in the learning process at school and home. E-Journal of Teaching and Learning in Diverse Settings, 1(2), 188-208.
Neuhauser, A., Ramseier, E., Schaub, S., Burkhardt, S. C., & Lanfranchi, A. (2018). Mediating role of maternal sensitivity: enhancing language development in at‐risk families. Infant Mental Health Journal, 39(5), 522-536. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21738
Institute for Families in Society, University of South Carolina & Pacific Research & Evaluation, LLC. (2021). South Carolina First Steps to School Readiness Parents as Teachers External Evaluation FY16-17 to FY18-19.
Wagner, M., Cameto, R., & Gerlach-Downie, S. (1996). Intervention in support of adolescent parents and their children: A final report on the Teen Parents as Teachers Demonstration. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
Wagner, M., Iida, E., & Spiker, D. (2001). The multisite evaluation of the Parents as Teachers home visiting program: Three-year findings from Winston-Salem, NC. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
McCombs-Thornton, K., Wang, Y., & Sturmfels, N. (2023). Parents as Teachers family outcomes: New insights from the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). Parents as Teachers National Center. https://parentsasteachers.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/PAT-Family-Outcomes-MIHOPE.pdf
LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2024). Parents as Teachers Randomized Control Trial in Arizona: 6- and 12-Month Outcomes Report. Tucson, AZ. https://www.lecroymilligan.com/_files/ugd/4d0a9d_3729c8f41ef34a2d9dfeb80b81c3073b.pdf
Parents as Teachers (2014). Internal Report on the Parenting Reflection Survey Results.
Ding, X., LaBrenz, C. A., Nulu, S., Gerlach, B., & Faulkner, M. (2023) Impact of Parents as Teachers on parenting-related protective factors: A pre- and post-evaluation. Children and Youth Services Review, 147, 106834. DOI: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106834 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106834
Provide early detection of developmental delays and connection to services
Annually, Parents as Teachers identifies approximately 32,000 developmental or health concerns. Early identifications of delays can lead to interventions being applied in a timely manner.
Parents as Teachers (2021). 2020-2021 Parents as Teachers affiliate performance report summary. St. Louis, MO.
Pfannenstiel, J., Lambson, T., & Yarnell, V. (1991). Second wave study of the Parents as Teachers program. Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates
Improve parent, child, and family health and well-being
Parents as Teachers mitigates the harmful effects of early life stress, promoting long-term mental health benefits for children in high-risk families while reducing parental and family stress. Children in the program have higher well-child visit attendance, better sleep and self-regulation, and healthier behaviors, while caregivers show improved health literacy, self-care, and reduced obesity risk through better nutrition and physical activity.
Maternal Depression Case Study
Wagner, M., Iida, E., & Spiker, D. (2001). The multisite evaluation of the Parents as Teachers home visiting program: Three-year findings from Winston-Salem, NC. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2024). Parents as Teachers Randomized Control Trial in Arizona: 6- and 12-Month Outcomes Report. Tucson, AZ. https://www.lecroymilligan.com/_files/ugd/4d0a9d_3729c8f41ef34a2d9dfeb80b81c3073b.pdf
Gardini, E., Schaub, S., Neuhauser, A., Ramseier, E., Villiger, A., Ehlert, U., . . . Turecki, G. (2020). Methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor promoter in children: Links with parents as teachers, early life stress, and behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001984
LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2022). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Virtual Service Delivery on Parents as Teachers Families and Parent Educators. Tucson, AZ.
Schaub, S., Ramseier, E., Neuhauser, A., Burkhardt, S., Lanfranchi, A. (2019). Effects of homebased early intervention on child outcomes: A randomized controlled trial of Parents as Teachers in Switzerland. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 173-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.03.007
Carroll, L., Smith, S., & Thomson, N. (2015). Parents as Teachers Health Literacy Demonstration Project: Integrating an Empowerment Model of Health Literacy Promotion Into Home-Based Parent Education. Health Promotion Practice, 16(2), 282-290.
Haire-Joshu, D., Elliott, M.B., Caito, N.M., Hessler, K., Nanney, M.S., Hale, N., Boehmer, T.K., Kreuter, M., Brownson, R.C. (2008). High 5 for Kids: The impact of a home visiting program on fruit and vegetable intake of parents and their preschool children. Preventive Medicine, 47, 77-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.03.016
Cahill, A., Haire-Joshu, D., Cade, WT., Stein, R., Woolfolk, C., Moley, K., Mathur, A., Schechtman K., & Klein, S. (2018). Weight control program and gestational weight gain in disadvantaged women with overweight or obesity: A randomized clinical trial. Obesity, 26(3), 485-491. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/oby.22070
Haire-Joshu, D., Cahill, A. G., Stein, R. I., Todd Cade, W., Woolfolk, C. L., Moley, K., Mathur, A., Schwarz, C. D., Schechtman, K. B. & Klein, S. (2019). Randomized controlled trial of home-based lifestyle therapy on postpartum weight in underserved women with overweight or obesity. Obesity, 27, 535-541. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.22413
Haire-Joshu, D., Schwarz, C., Steger-May, K., Lapka, C., Schechtman, K., Brownson, R., & Tabak, R. (2018) A randomized trial of weight change in a national home visiting program. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 54(3), 341-351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.12.012
Traube, D. E., Palmer Molina, A., Kemner, A., & Henk, J. (2022). Perinatal mental health support and early childhood home visitation during COVID-19. Prevention Science, 23(2), 260-270.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-021-01313-9
Prevent child abuse and neglect
Parents as Teachers families practice better home safety, have fewer maltreatment reports, a 22% lower likelihood of substantiated child maltreatment, reduced CPS reinvolvement, and improved protective factors like parental resilience and children’s social-emotional competence.
Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Fact Sheet
McCombs-Thornton, K., Wang, Y., & Sturmfels, N. (2023). Parents as Teachers family outcomes: New insights from the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). Parents as Teachers National Center. https://parentsasteachers.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/PAT-Family-Outcomes-MIHOPE.pdf
Parents as Teachers (2014). Internal Report on the Parenting Reflection Survey Results. St. Louis, MO.
Chaiyachati, B., Gaither, J., Hughes, M., Foley-Schain, K., & Leventhal, J. (2018). Preventing Child maltreatment: Examination of an established statewide home-visiting program. Journal of Child Abuse and Neglect, 49, 476-484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.019
Wagner, M. & Clayton, S.L. (1999). The Parents as Teachers Program: Results from Two Demonstrations. The Future of Children: Home Visiting: Recent Program Evaluations, 9(1), 91-115.
Jonson-Reid, M., Drake, B., Constantino, J., Tandom, M., Pons, L., Kohl, P., Roesch, S., Wideman, E., Dunnigan, A., & Auslander, W. (2018). A randomized trial of home visitation for CPS-Involved families: The moderating impact of maternal depression and CPS history. Child Maltreatment, 23, 281-293. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517751671
(n.d.). 2014 Maine Home Visiting Summary Report. Augusta, ME: Maine Department of Health and Human Services.
Increase children’s school readiness and success
Children in Parents as Teachers demonstrate stronger adaptive behavior, self-control, cognitive and language development, communication skills, academic performance, and have lower absenteeism and suspension rates.
Wagner, M., Spiker, D. & Linn, M.I. (2002). The effectiveness of the Parents as Teachers program with low-income parents and children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(2), 67-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214020220020101
Pfannenstiel, J. (2015). Evaluation of the I3 validation of improving education outcomes for American Indian children. Research and Training Associates, Inc. Kansas City, KS.
Institute for Families in Society, University of South Carolina & Pacific Research & Evaluation, LLC. (2021). South Carolina First Steps to School Readiness Parents as Teachers External Evaluation FY16-17 to FY18-19.
McCombs-Thornton, K., Wang, Y., & Sturmfels, N. (2023). Parents as Teachers family outcomes: New insights from the Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE). Parents as Teachers National Center. https://parentsasteachers.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/PAT-Family-Outcomes-MIHOPE.pdf
LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2024). Parents as Teachers Randomized Control Trial in Arizona: 6- and 12-Month Outcomes Report. Tucson, AZ.
Schaub, S., Ramseier, E., Neuhauser, A., Burkhardt, S., Lanfranchi, A. (2019). Effects of homebased early intervention on child outcomes: A randomized controlled trial of Parents as Teachers in Switzerland. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48, 173-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.03.007
Drotar, D., Robinson, J., Jeavons, I., & Kirchner, H.L. (2009). A randomized controlled evaluation of early intervention: The Born to Learn™ curriculum. Child: Care, Health & Development, 35(5), 643-643. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00915.
Pais, J., & Sexer, L.P. (2023). The effectiveness of a Parents as Teachers home visitation program on school readiness: An application of Complier Average Causal Effect analysis. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/26408066.2023.2201233
Fields ME, Hoyt-Drazen C, Abel R, et al. (2016). A pilot study of parent education intervention improves early childhood development among toddlers with sickle cell disease. Pediatr Blood Cancer, 63(12): 2131–2138. DOI: 10.1002/pbc.26164
LeCroy, C. W., Nisbet, K. M., & Schmidt, M. C. (2024). Randomized controlled trial of the parents as teacher home visiting program: Outcomes of the intervention on families at six-month follow-up. Children and Youth Services Review, 165, 107875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107875
Törmänen, M., Schaub, S., Ramseier, E., Koch, C., Kalkusch, I., Rodcharoen, P., … & Klaver, P. (2024). How do psychosocial stress of the family and early-term birth affect the development of children‘s executive functions? Using Baileys Scale III as a measurement for executive functions in children between 0 and 3 years. Authorea Preprints. DOI: 10.22541/au.171907871.18637657/v1
Lahti, M., Evans, C.B.R., Goodman, G., Cranwell Schmidt, M., & LeCroy, C.W. (2019). Parents as Teachers (PAT) home-visiting intervention: A path to improved academic outcomes, school behavior, and parenting skills. Children and Youth Services Review, 99, 451-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.01.022
Improve family economic well-being
Parents as Teachers caregivers are more likely to gain employment, pursue higher education, and improve family economic self-sufficiency, with mothers experiencing significant benefits in parenting and child development. Families also show increased educational achievement and greater awareness and utilization of financial resources like the Earned Income Tax Credit, while reducing neglect.
James Bell Associates (2022). Exploring family trends using Penelope data. Arlington, VA.
Wang, Y. & Sturmfels, N. (2023). Exploring Employment and Education Outcomes for Caregivers Participating in Parents as Teachers: Home Visiting Outcomes Analysis Results. Parents as Teachers National Center. https://parentasteachers.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Employment-and-Education-Outcomes-Analyses_02282387.pdf
Maguire-Jack, K., Park, Y., Chang, O. D., Solomon, A., Quinn, J., Greenberg, S., … & Hinton, J. (2024). Findings from the Michigan EITC Access Project: ACEs Prevention Through Economic Intervention. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-024-00971-2
Strengthen community capacity and connectedness
Parents as Teachers strengthens family connections to community resources, increasing referrals and follow-through, while enhancing social support. Parents in the program are more engaged in their children’s education, enrolling them in preschool and actively participating in school activities.
Heinemeier, S., & D’Agostino, A. (2017). South Carolina First Steps Evaluation Of Parents as Teachers 2008-2016. South Carolina State Documents Depository.
LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2024). Parents as Teachers Randomized Control Trial in Arizona: 6- and 12-Month Outcomes Report. Tucson, AZ.
Arteaga, I., Carlo, G., & Martinez, M. (2018). Evaluation of the Right from the Start Program: Final Report. St. Louis, MO: Parents as Teachers National Center.
Albritton, S., Klotz, J., & Roberson, T. (2004). The effects of participating in a Parents as Teachers program on parental involvement in the learning process at school and home. E-Journal of Teaching and Learning in Diverse Settings, 1(2), 188-208.
Zigler, E., Pfannenstiel, J., & Seitz, V. (2008). The Parents as Teachers program and school success: A replication and extension. Journal of Primary Prevention, 29, 103-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-008-0132-1
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| California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse (CEBC) for Child Welfare: cebc4cw.org, 2018. |
| Child Trends What Works Programs Database: Childtrends.org/programs, 2010. |
| Community-based Child Abuse Prevention’s (CBCAP) Matrix of Evidence-Based Programs: friendsnrc.org/evaluation/evidence-based-practice/ebp-crosswalk/, 2015. |
| Educational Program That Works by the National Diffusion Network: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED381535, 1995. |
| Home Visiting Evidence of Effectiveness for Maternal, Infant, Early Childhood Home Visiting program (MIECHV): http://homvee.acf.hhs.gov, 2013. |
| Proven and Promising Practices website: promisingpractices.net, 2014. |
| Results First Clearinghouse Database: https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/data-visualizations/2015/results-first-clearinghouse-database. 2021. |
| Title IV-E Prevention Services Clearinghouse: https://preventionservices.acf.hhs.gov/program, 2019. |
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| Early Impact Foundation – United Kingdom, a database of effective early intervention programs: eif.org.uk, 2021. |
| Grüne Liste Prävention – Germany, a database of programs that aim to prevent violence, crime, addictive behavior and other problem behaviors among children and adolescents: https://www.gruene-liste-praevention.de/nano.cms/datenbank/information, 2020. |
| National Academy of Parenting Practices’ (U.K.) Commissioning Toolkit: Nationalarchives.gov.uk/webarchive, 2014. |
| PGF wirkt! – Switzerland, a list of effective prevention and health promotion projects: pgfwirkt.ch/de, 2020. |
| Phineo Wirkt! program for working with children in poverty in German: phineo.org, 2018. |
Are you currently conducting an evaluation of Parents as Teachers or are you interested in conducting research?
We strongly encourage evaluation of Parents as Teachers at the local and state levels. If you are interested in conducting a Parents as Teachers evaluation, please contact us: